_Thinking Education Through Alain Badiou_ represents the first collection to explore the educational implications of French philosopher Alain Badiou's challenge to contemporary philosophical orthodoxy put forth in his 1993 work, _Ethics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil._ Represents the first collection of work in education to grapple with what Alain Badiou might mean for the enterprise of schooling Takes up Badiou's challenge to contemporary and conventional Anglo-American doxa Includes original essays by experts in several different educational fields.

_Thinking Education Through Alain Badiou_ represents the first collection to explore the educational implications of French philosopher Alain Badiou's challenge to contemporary philosophical orthodoxy put forth in his 1993 work, _Ethics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil._ Represents the first collection of work in education to grapple with what Alain Badiou might mean for the enterprise of schooling Takes up Badiou's challenge to contemporary and conventional Anglo-American doxa Includes original essays by experts in several different educational fields.

This chapter contains sections titled: Notes References.

How does a parent get a child to do something? And, indeed, how might the child avoid complying or seem to comply without actually having done so? This article uses conversation analysis to identify the interactionally preferred and dispreferred response to directives. It then focuses on one alternative response option that has both verbal and embodied elements. The first part involves an embodied display of incipient compliance. That is, actions that are preparatory steps towards compliance and signal that it may (...) be forthcoming, but which do not in themselves constitute compliance. Incipient compliance creates sequential space for a verbal turn that reformulates the ongoing action as autonomous, self-motivated behaviour on the recipient’s part, rather than subject to the will of the directive speaker. This enables the recipient to maintain autonomy over their own conduct without provoking the conflict or repeat directives associated with outright resistance. (shrink)

© 2017. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved.We present new observations of the low-mass companion to HD 984 taken with the Gemini Planet Imager as a part of the GPI Exoplanet Survey campaign. Images of HD 984 B were obtained in the J and H bands. Combined with archival epochs from 2012 and 2014, we fit the first orbit to the companion to find an 18 au orbit with a 68% confidence interval between 14 and 28 au, an eccentricity (...) of 0.18 with a 68% confidence interval between 0.05 and 0.47, and an inclination of 119°with a 68% confidence interval between 114°and 125°. To address the considerable spectral covariance in both spectra, we present a method of splitting the spectra into low and high frequencies to analyze the spectral structure at different spatial frequencies with the proper spectral noise correlation. Using the split spectra, we compare them to known spectral types using field brown dwarf and low-mass star spectra and find a best-fit match of a field gravity M6.5 ±1.5 spectral type with a corresponding temperature of K. Photometry of the companion yields a luminosity of log=2.88 ± 0.07 dex with DUSTY models. Mass estimates, again from DUSTY models, find an age-dependent mass of 34 ±1 to 95 ±4 M Jup. These results are consistent with previous measurements of the object. (shrink)

BackgroundAlthough a large number of clinical trials on interventions demonstrating efficacy (or lack thereof) are conducted annually, much of this evidence is not accessible to scientists and clinicians.ObjectivesWe aimed to determine the publication rate of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) trials that have been registered in clinical trial registries, and the factors associated with publication.MethodsTrials, completed on January 15, 2015, were identified via the US National Institutes of Health clinical trials registry, the European Union Clinical Trials Register and the WHO International (...) Clinical Trials Registry Platform. A systematic search for publications (published by the end of March 2018) related to each of the registered trials were then performed.ResultsFour hundred and thirty-eight of 1982 potentially eligible trials were included. Only 34% of interventional trials were registered prior to initiation, 9% were registered within 2 months of starting and 20% after trial completion. Of the 438 included trials, 72% had generated peer-reviewed publications, while an additional 7% had disseminated results in some other form (such as on the trial database), 26 months after trial completion. Randomisation of a trial was the only factor individually associated with publication, in logistic regression analysis (p < 0.001). Intervention type, university as sponsor and study registration prior to completion were factors that influenced the time to publication, using Cox regression (p < 0.001).ConclusionsThis study underscores the importance of timely and accurate publication and dissemination of trial results, in order to avoid the potential waste of resources and to ensure research integrity and patient safety. We suggest that authors and journal editors adhere to conditions set out by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors and that more diligent data sharing is encouraged through prospective trial registration and trial reporting websites. (shrink)

Reporting on the 7th International Congress of Logic, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science, first the main topics and some organisational aspects of the congress are presented; the main part of the report focuses on recent developments in Philosophical Logic , in particular the theory of so-called generalized quantifiers as presented at the congress. In addition, some background information on logical language analysis, its possible applications and consequences is provided.

Zusammenfassung Vor dem Hintergrund einer angestiegenen Anzahl an Geflüchteten in Deutschland wurden durch den organisierten Sport Programme installiert, die explizit die ‚Zielgruppe’ Geflüchtete adressieren und deren Integration in und durch den Sport fördern sollen. Unter Zuhilfenahme von verschiedenen, dem Integrationsparadigma gegenüber kritisch positionierten Ansätzen, die aus einer machttheoretischen Perspektive Differenzkategorisierungen analysieren, beleuchten wir am Beispiel des Sports den dominierenden Integrationsdiskurs. Wir zeigen, dass Integration – abweichend von der wissenschaftlichen Definition, die diese als wechselseitigen Prozess bezeichnet – in Programmen in erster (...) Linie Menschen mit sogenanntem Migrationshintergrund als eine Art Bringschuld auferlegt wird. Sich davon abgrenzend stellen wir das Konzept der Teilhabe vor, welches eine gleichberechtigte und interessengeleitete Partizipation fordert. Mit dem Projekt Refugees Welcome in Sport nehmen wir ein Projekt für Geflüchtete in den Blick, welches sich die Ermöglichung von Teilhabe zum Ziel setzt. In einer praxeologisch ausgerichteten Begleitforschung reflektieren wir, welche Herausforderungen sich bei der praktischen Umsetzung des konzeptionellen Anspruchs ergeben. (shrink)

Zusammenfassung Vor dem Hintergrund einer angestiegenen Anzahl an Geflüchteten in Deutschland wurden durch den organisierten Sport Programme installiert, die explizit die ‚Zielgruppe’ Geflüchtete adressieren und deren Integration in und durch den Sport fördern sollen. Unter Zuhilfenahme von verschiedenen dem Integrationsparadigma gegenüber kritisch positionierten Ansätzen, die aus einer machttheoretischen Perspektive Differenzkategorisierungen analysieren, beleuchten wir am Beispiel des Sports den dominierenden Integrationsdiskurs. Wir zeigen, dass Integration – abweichend von der wissenschaftlichen Definition, die diese als wechselseitigen Prozess bezeichnet – in Programmen in erster (...) Linie Menschen mit sogenanntem Migrationshintergrund als eine Art Bringschuld auferlegt wird. Wir stellen das sich davon abgrenzende Konzept der Teilhabe vor, welches eine gleichberechtigte und interessengeleitete Partizipation fordert. Mit dem Projekt Refugees Welcome in Sport nehmen wir ein Projekt für Geflüchtete in den Blick, welches sich die Ermöglichung von Teilhabe zum Ziel setzt. In einer praxeologisch ausgerichteten Begleitforschung reflektieren wir, welche Herausforderungen sich bei der praktischen Umsetzung des konzeptionellen Anspruchs ergeben. (shrink)

Die Beschäftigung dem Filioque hat derzeit wieder Konjunktur. Nach der Studie von Bernd Oberdorfer (2001), die das Filioque-Problem aus primär systematisch-theologischer Perspektive untersucht, legt Peter Gemeinhardt jetzt mit seiner Marburger Dissertation ein Werk vor, das sich der Filioque-Problematik unter historischem Gesichtspunkt nähert, genauer: das die Entstehung des Filioque selbst und die damit verknüpfte Kontroverse von den Anfängen bis zum frühen 12. Jahrhundert eingehend nachzeichnet und durchaus als komplementäres Werk zu Oberdorfers Buch – auf das sich G. wiederholt bezieht – gelesen (...) werden kann. Die Arbeit legt den Schwerpunkt auf die Zeit vor 1054, die in den Augen des Vf. hinsichtlich der Filioque-Kontroverse bisher unter einem Schleier liegt, den er „vermittels einer kirchen- und dogmengeschichtlichen Untersuchung“ lüften will um „damit den gegenwärtigen Auseinandersetzungen um Sinnhaftigkeit und Legitimität des Filioque ein historisch-kritisches Korrektiv an die Hand zu geben“ (VIII). Diese Zielsetzung spiegelt sich auch darin, daß der eigentlich historische Teil der Arbeit eingerahmt wird von zwei kürzeren, die die Untersuchung im ökumenischen und systematisch-theologischen Horizont verorten. Abschnitt A bildet die Einleitung: „Das Filioque im Spannungsfeld der gegenwärtigen Ökumene“ (S.1–40). Abschnitt B zeichnet die historische Entwicklung nach: „Stationen der Filioque-Kontroverse im Frühmittelalter“ (S.41–534). Abschnitt C faßt die Ergebnisse zusammen und lenkt den Blick zurück auf die ökumenische Diskussion der Gegenwart: „Systematisierende Zusammenfassung“ (S.535–556). Am Ende finden sich – angesichts der ungeheuren Fülle des verarbeiteten Materials unerläßliche – Anhänge zur Textentwicklung des NC (S.557–562), Abkürzungen der Quellen (S.563–566), die umfangreiche Bibliographie (S.567–598) und Register (Bibelstellen; Quellen; Namen; Orte; Synoden; moderne Autoren; S.599–644), die dem dankbaren Leser die Arbeit erleichtern. (shrink)

Wie bedeutsam ist die Unterscheidung zwischen den Philosophien von Leibniz und Wolff? Was hat Leibniz' China-Bild fur Folgen? Welchen Einfluss hatte die Theodizee-Rezeption auf die Ubersetzung der Wertheimer Bibel?

Die Leibniz-Rezeption ist vielfaltig, komplex, schwer uberschaubar; spezielle Untersuchungen eher selten. Dabei gibt es zahlreiche Fragen, deren Beantwortung fur die Philosophie- und Religionsgeschichte interessant ist: Welche Rolle spielte Leibniz als Vermittler zwischen den christlichen Konfessionen? Wie bedeutsam ist die Unterscheidung zwischen den Philosophien von Leibniz und Wolff? Was hat Leibniz' China-Bild fur Folgen? Welchen Einfluss hatte die Theodizee-Rezeption auf die Ubersetzung der Wertheimer Bibel? Was trug zur Popularisierung, was zur Banalisierung Leibnizens bei, wie wurden philosophische Sprache und die deutsche Klassik (...) durch ihn gepragt? Inwieweit hat Kant Leibniz' Philosophie missverstanden? Welche Wirkung hat Leibniz' Metaphysik auf Schelling und Krause? Wie gut kann Schopenhauer seine pessimistische Weltsicht gegen Leibniz rechtfertigen? Wie urteilt Feuerbach uber Leibniz? Renommierte Leibniz- und Idealismus-Forscher haben sich getroffen, um diesen und anderen spannenden Fragen nachzugehen. Entstanden ist ein wertvoller Einblick in das breite Spektrum der Rezeptions- und Wirkungsgeschichte der Philosophie von G.W. Leibniz im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert. (shrink)

Thema des Sammelbands ist der Zusammenhang von ubung und Wissen in religiosen und philosophischen Kontexten der Vormoderne. AN einzelnen regional und sozial differenzierten Fallbeispielen aus dem euro-asiatischen Raum werden ubungspraktiken, durch die Wissen hergestellt, vermittelt und bestatigt, aber auch hinterfragt und modifiziert wurde, klassifiziert und erortert. UNtersucht werden Materialien, Medien und Darstellungsweisen aus griechisch-romischer Philosophie, Christentum, Judentum und Islam, Hinduismus und Buddhismus, die von der wechselseitigen Verwiesenheit von ubung und Wissen zeugen. uBerlegungen zum Thema im Kontext globaler Austauschbeziehungen, wie sie (...) z.B. Den modernen Yoga pragen, runden den Band ab. (shrink)

Suppose that I stand firmly in what Alasdair MacIntyre describes as the Thomistic tradition of moral enquiry. I try my best to recover a historical understanding of Aquinas's teachings, and I refuse to let my philosophical opponents set the terms of debate. Now suppose that you yourself are one of my opponents: a Buddhist, a Jew, a Muslim or perhaps a secular humanist. Finally, suppose that I have always found you a considerate neighbour, a friendly and responsible colleague, and a (...) reliable contributor to worthy causes: you run the neighbourhood recycling programme, do volunteer work at an AIDS hospice, and serve as den mother of your son's Cub Scout troop. All of my experience suggests that you are, by commonly accepted standards, morally admirable; but you don't believe in God, or at least your own understanding of God and God's law differs significantly from my own. Am I, as a loyal Thomist, able to acknowledge your virtues? Or must I dismiss them all as merely apparent? (shrink)

Die Kritische Theorie gilt als Theorie der Frankfurter Schule. So wie sie von Max Horkheimer in seinem klassischen Aufsatz über Kritische und traditionelle Theorie in den dreißiger Jahren ausgearbeitet wurde, ist sie allerdings eine kritische Theorie der Gesellschaft, nicht der Natur und der Technik. Der Grund dafür ist darin zu suchen, daß die Kritische Theorie gerade in Absetzung von der positivistisch verstandenen Naturwissenschaft konzipiert wurde und daß ferner die Entwicklung von Technik im Sinne der Produktivkräfte als eine unabhängige Randbedingung der (...) gesellschaftlichen Entwicklung gesehen wurde. Eine Ausnahme innerhalb der Frankfurter Schule bildet Herbert Marcuse, der die Themen Naturbeherrschung und Technikentwicklung in seinen Arbeiten ausdrücklich behandelt. Der vorliegende Band versucht nun, Technik und Natur ausdrücklich in den Einzugsbereich der Kritischen Theorie zu bringen. Anlaß dazu sind die fortschreitende Technisierung der menschlichen Lebensverhältnisse, die Technisierung der Natur, die wir selbst sind, nämlich des Leibes, wie auch die Tatsache, daß die für uns relevante äußere Natur bereits weitgehend anthropogene Natur ist. Das verlangt nach einer kritischen Theorie der Technologieentwicklung, nach einer kritischen Behandlung der menschlichen Natur innerhalb der Gesellschaftstheorie, und schließlich nach einer Theorie der gesellschaftlichen Naturverhältnisse. Ansätze dazu werden aus dem Bereich der Sozialökologie, der feministischen Theorie des Körpers und der Theorie von Informatisierungsprozessen vorgeführt. Das Interesse dabei ist, diese Ansätze in die Tradition der älteren Kritischen Theorie einzubringen. Deshalb arbeiten mehrere Beiträge die Vorgeschichte der Behandlung der Themen Technik und Natur in der Kritischen Theorie auf. Aus dem Zentrum der Kritischen Theorie verbannt, finden sich ihre Spuren eher am Rande, nämlich im Zusammenhang der Ästhetik. Es gilt heute, was seiner Zeit unter den Stichworten Nicht-Identität oder Eingedenken der Natur im Subjekt nur angedeutet werden konnte, ins Zentrum theoretischer Bemühungen zu rücken. (shrink)

In recent years, several formalisms for program construction have appeared. One such formalism is the type theory developed by Per Martin-L f. Well suited as a theory for program construction, it makes possible the expression of both specifications and programs within the same formalism. Furthermore, the proof rules can be used to derive a correct program from a specification as well as to verify that a given program has a certain property. This book contains a thorough introduction to type theory, (...) with information on polymorphic sets, subsets, monomorphic sets, and a full set of helpful examples. (shrink)

Fractal patterns offer one way to represent the rough complexity of the natural world. Whilst they dominate many of our visual experiences in nature, little large-scale perceptual research has been done to explore how we respond aesthetically to these patterns. Previous research (Taylor et al., 2011) suggests that the fractal patterns with mid-range fractal dimensions have universal aesthetic appeal. Perceptual and aesthetic responses to visual complexity have been more varied with findings suggesting both linear (Forsythe et al., 2011) and curvilinear (...) (Berlyne, 1970) relationships. Individual differences have been found to account for many of the differences we see in aesthetic responses but some, such as culture, have received little attention within the fractal and complexity research fields. This 2-study paper aims to test preference responses to fractal dimension and visual complexity, using a large cohort (N=443) of participants from around the world to allow universality claims to be tested. It explores the extent to which age, culture and gender can predict our preferences for fractally complex patterns. Following exploratory analysis that found strong correlations between fractal dimension and visual complexity, a series of linear mixed-effect models were implemented to explore if each of the individual variables could predict preference. The first tested a linear complexity model (likelihood of selecting the more complex image from the pair of images) and the second a mid-range fractal dimension model (likelihood of selecting an image within mid-range). Results show that individual differences can reliably predict preferences for complexity across culture, gender and age. However, in fitting with current findings the mid-range models show greater consistency in preference not mediated by gender, age or culture. This paper supports the established theory that the mid-range fractal patterns appear to be a universal construct underlying preference but also highlights the fragility of universal claims by demonstrating individual differences in preference for the interrelated concept of visual complexity. This highlights a current stalemate in the field of empirical aesthetics. (shrink)

_Background:_ Weight-related stigma is reported frequently by higher body-weight patients in healthcare settings. Bariatric surgery triggers profound weight loss. This weight loss may therefore alleviate patients' experiences of weight-related stigma within healthcare settings. In non-clinical settings, weight-related stigma is associated with weight-inducing eating patterns. Dietary adherence is a major challenge after bariatric surgery. _Objectives:_ (1) Evaluate the relationship between weight-related stigma and post-surgical dietary adherence; (2) understand if weight loss reduces weight-related stigma, thereby improving post-surgical dietary adherence; and (3) explore (...) provider and patient perspectives on adherence and stigma in healthcare settings. _Design:_ This mixed methods study contrasts survey responses from 300 postoperative bariatric patients with ethnographic data based on interviews with 35 patients and extensive multi-year participant-observation within a clinic setting. The survey measured experiences of weight-related stigma, including from healthcare professionals, on the Interpersonal Sources of Weight Stigma scale and internalized stigma based on the Weight Bias Internalization Scale. Dietary adherence measures included patient self-reports, non-disordered eating patterns reported on the Disordered Eating after Bariatric Surgery scale, and food frequencies. Regression was used to assess the relationships among post-surgical stigma, dietary adherence, and weight loss. Qualitative analyses consisted of thematic analysis. _Results:_ The quantitative data show that internalized stigma and general experiences of weight-related stigma predict worse dietary adherence, even after weight is lost. The qualitative data show patients did not generally recognize this connection, and health professionals explained it as poor patient compliance. _Conclusion:_ Reducing perceptions of weight-related stigma in healthcare settings and weight bias internalization could enhance dietary adherence, regardless of time since patient's weight-loss surgery. (shrink)

In this article we aim to reduce the force of the expensive tastes objection to equality of welfare by constructing a pluralist welfare egalitarian theory which is not defeated by it. In the first part, we argue that Cohen’s condition of responsibility-sensitiveness is not able to provide a satisfactory rebuttal of the expensive tastes objection for at least a class of theories of justice, namely those that adhere to a methodologically fact-sensitive view. In the second part, we explore the possibility (...) of constructing a welfare egalitarian theory that gives weight to both equality and efficiency. We propose two alternatives, which integrate a utilitarian constraint and a Weak Pareto constraint on equality and show that both theories consistently differentiate between compensable and non-compensable expensive tastes, but should ultimately be rejected because of other unattractive implications. Finally, we develop a fairness-constrained theory of welfare egalitarianism and suggest that it can distinguish between compensable and non-compensable expensive tastes in both a conceptually consistent and a morally plausible manner, without generating decisive additional objections. (shrink)

This chapter contains sections titled: An Example The Paradigmatic Form of the Argument The Appeal to a Pernicious Precedent Slopes of Reason Slopes of Unreason Factual and Moral Plausibility Appearance and Reality References.

Metaphysics often has an important role in deciding ethical questions. Specifically, in the realm of bioethics, metaphysical questions such as the nature of persons, diseases, and properties in general can be crucial to determining what is right or wrong. In this article, I tie together various metaphysical themes that recur throughout the rest of the issue: rationality as an element of human nature, ontological classifications, and kinds of action. I will explain that each has ethical implications. Actions that contravene reason (...) will be morally problematic, whereas our classification of illnesses will have important implications for how we ought to respond to ill persons. Metaphysical questions appear, or are at least suggested, in each article, pointing to the need for metaphysics in answering bioethical questions. (shrink)

Ce livre constitue la version publiée de la thèse de Caroline Rusterholz sur l’évolution des attitudes, comportements et normes relatives à la fécondité en Suisse entre les années 1955 et 1970. Son objectif est d’éclairer les pratiques et représentations d’une génération spécifique de parents suisses : ceux qui ont eu leurs enfants entre le baby-boom d’après-guerre, marqué par des familles très nombreuses, et la génération dite du « baby-bust » qui dans les années 1970 connaît une faible féco...

Partie de l’homme et de sa poièsis pour en nier les limites et se représenter un produire supérieur, la création digne du Dieu créateur du ciel et de la terre, la philosophie occidentale a fini par l’appliquer à l’homme-artiste : partie d’une conception trop anthropomorphique de la production divine, elle a fini par promouvoir une conception théomorphique de la création humaine. On érige en méthode un tel théomorphisme afin de voir d’abord comment les diverses conceptions de la création divine éclairent (...) effectivement la création humaine. On explore ensuite la relation de l’œuvre au principe créateur : qu’est et que devient l’œuvre une fois qu’elle est créée? Et que peut nous apprendre sur la création même le destin du créé? (shrink)

Dans cette étude, l’auteur veut montrer que le conflit, dans la Phénoménologie de l’esprit, ne se réduit pas à la confrontation des consciences de soi débouchant sur le rapport maître-esclave : en fait, le conflit apparaît, dans chaque section de la Phénoménologie de l’esprit, au moment correspondant à la conscience de soi. Ce sont ces différentes figures qui sont ici résumées. En conclusion, l’auteur suggère que la « philosophie de l’identité » de Schelling pourrait être la source principale de la (...) conception hégélienne du conflit.In this study, the author intends to show that in PhG, conflict is not just the confrontation of self-consciousness leading up to a master-slave relationship : in fact, conflict appears in each section of PhG at the time corresponding to self-consciousness. These different figures are summarized here. In conclusion, the author suggests that Schelling’s « identity philosophy » could be the main root of Hegelian conception of conflict. (shrink)

The aim of these two studies was to test to what extent television advertisements reflect gender-role differentiation in two countries: Poland and Britain. British and Polish samples of television advertisements were analyzed and compared with previous studies. The results show slightly more gender-role stereotyping in Polish television advertisements, and a slight decline of stereotyping in Britain. The second study was conducted on children's advertisements following Furnham, Abramsky, and Gunter's content analytic study. In general, there were more advertisements oriented towards both (...) girls and boys, and there were more males as central figures. The differences between two countries were not major, suggesting that levels of gender-stereotyping in Poland and Britain are similar, with slightly more stereotyping present in Polish advertisements. (shrink)

Confusion in terms inspires confusion in concepts. When a relevant distinction is not clearly marked or not marked at all, it is apt to be blurred or even missed altogether in our thinking. This is true in any area of inquiry, pragmatics in particular. No one disputes that there are various ways in which what is communicated in an utterance can go beyond sentence meaning. The problem is to catalog the ways. It is generally recognized that linguistic meaning underdetermines speaker (...) meaning because of the need for disambiguation and reference assignment and because people can speak figuratively or indirectly. But philosophers and linguists are coming to recognize that these are not the only ways. The situation may be described in Gricean terms: the distinction between what is said and what is implicated is not exhaustive. Charting the middle ground between the two will require attending to specific examples, noting their distinctive features, and articulating the relevant concepts. That is what I aim to do here. The basic idea will be to distinguish not only the implied from the explicit but the implicit from the implied. (shrink)

This paper offers a smattering of applications of pragmatics to epistemology. In most cases they concern recent epistemological claims that depend for their plausibility on mistaking something pragmatic for something semantic. After giving my formulation of the semantic/pragmatic distinction and explaining how seemingly semantic intuitions can be responsive to pragmatic factors, I take up the following topics: 1. Classic Examples of Confusing Meaning and Use 2. Pragmatic Implications of Hedging or Intensifying an Assertion 3. Belief Attributions 4. Knowledge-wh 5. The (...) Knowledge Rule on Assertion 6. Testimony 7. Asserting and Thinking of Possibilities 8. Concessive Knowledge Attributions 9. “Pragmatic Encroachment” 10. Epistemic Contextualism.. (shrink)

The traditional puzzles about belief reports puzzles rest on a certain seemingly innocuous assumption, that 'that'-clauses specify belief contents. The main theories of belief reports also rest on this "Specification Assumption", that for a belief report of the form 'A believes that p' to be true,' the proposition that p must be among the things A believes. I use Kripke's Paderewski case to call the Specification Assumption into question. Giving up that assumption offers prospects for an intuitively more plausible approach (...) to the semantics of belief reports. But this approach must confront a puzzle of its own: it turns out that every case is a Paderewski case, at least potentially. (shrink)